7 June 2023

• History: The 350th anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's coronation was marked at Raigad Fort.
• Governance: Manual scavenging deaths and slow mechanisation remained in focus; the NAMASTE scheme's allocation was questioned.
• Ukraine: The Kakhovka Dam on the Dnipro River was breached, flooding downstream areas and threatening water supply to Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant and Crimea.
• Energy: The SDG 7 Energy Progress Report found India on track for universal electricity but 479 districts behind on clean cooking fuel.
• Environment: Atmospheric CO2 peaked at 424 parts per million in May 2023, the highest in human history.

GS area: History (Medieval), Art and Culture

The 350th anniversary of the coronation of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was celebrated at Raigad Fort in present-day Maharashtra.

• Coronation: Shivaji was coronated on 6 June 1674 at Raigad. This was significant because it formalised his sovereignty, transforming him from a regional chieftain into an independent king with a Hindu ritual claim to kingship.
• Concept of Hindavi Swaraj: Shivaji articulated the idea of self-rule for the people of the subcontinent against Mughal and Adilshahi domination.
• Ashtapradhan: The eight-minister council he established to govern the Maratha state. The eight portfolios included the Peshwa (prime minister), Amatya (finance), Sachiv (correspondence), Mantri (intelligence), Senapati (army), Sumant (foreign affairs), Nyayadhish (justice), and Panditrao (religious affairs).
• Revenue system: Shivaji replaced the jagirdari system with a ryotwari-style direct relationship between the state and the cultivator. Land revenue was collected in cash rather than kind where possible.
• Naval force: Shivaji built what is considered India's first organised navy, with fortified sea forts at Sindhudurg, Vijayadurg, and Jaigad.
• Guerrilla warfare: He pioneered mountain warfare tactics that used terrain, speed, and surprise against numerically superior Mughal armies.

Raigad fort (Raigadh) is located approximately 25 km from Mahad in Raigad district, Maharashtra. It was Shivaji's capital from the coronation until his death in 1680.

Static linkage: Medieval history; art and culture.

GS area: Social Justice, Governance

The NAMASTE scheme and the mechanisation of sewer cleaning work were in focus after more deaths in Delhi.

• Scale: As of 2018, 58,000 workers were identified as manual scavengers in India. Since 1993, 941 deaths in sewers and septic tanks have been recorded.
• Only 508 of 766 districts had been declared manual scavenging-free as of 2023.
• Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers Act 2013: Made the practice a cognizable, non-bailable offence. Rehabilitation includes a one-time cash assistance of 40,000 rupees and skill training.
• NAMASTE scheme: National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem. Its goal is 100 per cent mechanisation of sewer entry and septic tank cleaning. Budget 2023-24 allocated 100 crore rupees for NAMASTE.
• Kerala's Bandicoot robot: A robotic system developed in Kerala that enters manholes to clear blockages without human entry. It is one of the few operational solutions.
• Gap: No allocation was made in the 2023-24 budget for worker rehabilitation under the 2013 Act, even as NAMASTE received funding. This raises a fairness question about existing workers versus future mechanisation.

Static linkage: Social justice; polity (Fundamental Rights under Article 17, which abolishes untouchability).

GS area: International Relations, Environment, Geography

The Kakhovka Dam on the Dnipro River in Ukraine was breached on 6 June 2023. Both Russia and Ukraine blamed each other.

• The dam: Built in the Soviet era in 1956. It created the Kakhovka reservoir, Ukraine's largest, holding over 18 cubic kilometres of water.
• Critical functions: Supplied cooling water to the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant (Europe's largest nuclear plant); irrigated large swathes of southern Ukraine; supplied freshwater to Crimea via the North Crimean Canal.
• Immediate impact: Downstream flooding submerged dozens of towns on both sides of the river; agricultural land was contaminated; tens of thousands were displaced.
• Nuclear risk: The Zaporizhzhia plant's spent fuel cooling pools required an alternative water supply after reservoir levels fell.
• International law: The Fourth Geneva Convention and its Additional Protocols classify attacks on dams, dykes, and nuclear plants as war crimes if they cause disproportionate civilian harm. The International Committee of the Red Cross flagged the breach.

Static linkage: International relations; geography (Dnipro River, Black Sea region); environment.

GS area: Economy (energy), Government Schemes

The SDG 7 Energy Progress Report 2023 found India on track for universal electricity access but far behind on clean cooking.

• Electricity: India's rural electrification under the Saubhagya scheme (2017) connected over 2.5 crore unelectrified households. The SDG 7 target of universal access by 2030 is achievable for India.
• Clean cooking gap: 479 districts remain off-target for clean cooking fuel penetration by 2030. The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana connected 9 crore LPG connections for BPL households, but sustained use (refill rates) remains low in many states.
• Global: Universal electricity access requires USD 1.4 to 1.7 trillion of investment through 2030.
• India's key schemes: PM-KUSUM (solar pumps for farmers); Saubhagya (rural electrification); DDUGJY (power distribution in rural areas); UDAY (discoms turnaround).

CO2 levels: Atmospheric carbon dioxide peaked at 424 parts per million in May 2023. Pre-industrial levels were approximately 280 ppm. The measurement site is the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, which provides the Keeling Curve data.

Static linkage: Energy; environment; government schemes.

• Gandhi's Pietermaritzburg moment: 7 June 1893 is the date Mahatma Gandhi was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg station in South Africa for refusing to leave a first-class compartment. This incident is credited with transforming him from a lawyer to an activist.
• Phage therapy: A treatment that uses bacteriophages (viruses that infect and kill bacteria) to treat antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. First discovered in 1915-17, it was largely abandoned when penicillin arrived but is now reviving as antimicrobial resistance grows.
• Kosovo-Serbia tension: NATO deployed additional peacekeeping troops after clashes between Kosovo security forces and ethnic Serb protesters in northern Kosovo. Kosovo declared independence in 2008, unrecognised by Serbia and several UN members including Russia and China.