31 December 2024

• Society: India's Rohingya refugee population stands at approximately 22,500, a stateless community protected by neither citizenship nor a formal refugee framework.
• Environment: Vembanad Lake, India's longest lake and a Ramsar wetland, was highlighted for declining water quality amid rapid urbanisation.
• Science: NASA confirmed the Parker Solar Probe's 24 December 2024 perihelion as the closest solar approach in history, with data transmission confirmed by 31 December.
• Defence: DRDO's Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) system for Scorpene submarines passed a key validation milestone.

GS area: Society, International Relations, Polity

India has approximately 22,500 registered Rohingya refugees as of December 2024, according to UNHCR data. India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol.

• Who are the Rohingya? An ethnic Muslim minority from Myanmar's Rakhine State. Myanmar does not recognize them as citizens under the 1982 Myanmar Citizenship Law. They are one of the world's largest stateless populations (approximately 1 million globally; many in Bangladesh, Malaysia, India).
• Legal status in India: No dedicated refugee law in India. The Foreigners Act, 1946 governs all non-citizens. Rohingyas without valid documents are treated as "illegal migrants" under the Foreigners Act.
• UNHCR registration: UNHCR registers Rohingyas in India and issues cards, but these have no binding legal force on the Indian government.
• Mohammad Salimullah case (2021): A Supreme Court case filed by Rohingya refugees seeking to halt deportation. The Supreme Court declined to stay deportations, holding that non-citizens do not have a fundamental right to reside in India (Article 19 applies only to citizens). The case is still being heard on merits.
• Non-refoulement: Under customary international law, states should not return refugees to places where they face persecution. India is not a party to the Refugee Convention, so non-refoulement is not a binding treaty obligation for India.
• Government position: The Indian government classifies Rohingyas as illegal immigrants and a security threat. Home Ministry has periodically directed state police to identify and detain undocumented Rohingyas.
• Bangladesh context: About 1 million Rohingyas are in Cox's Bazar camps in Bangladesh, straining bilateral relations with Myanmar and creating pressure on India's northeast.

Static linkage: Society (refugees, statelessness, discrimination), international relations (Myanmar, UNHCR), polity (Foreigners Act, fundamental rights, non-refoulement).

GS area: Geography, Environment

Vembanad Lake, Kerala, was in the news following reports of declining water quality and rising salinity intrusion.

• Location: Stretches across Alappuzha, Kottayam and Ernakulam districts, Kerala. Drains into the Arabian Sea at Kochi harbour.
• Length: Approximately 96.5 km. India's longest lake. Also the largest lake in Kerala.
• Ramsar designation: 2002. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands protects wetlands of international importance.
• Area: About 2,033 sq km.
• Kuttanad: The Kuttanad region (below sea level farming area) is the southernmost part of Vembanad Lake. Paddy is cultivated below sea level here, a globally significant agricultural system (GIAHS, FAO designation).
• Threats:
  • Encroachment (Kochi city expansion has reduced lake area by about 35 per cent since 1973).
  • Pollution from boat exhausts (country boat racing, tourism), untreated sewage from Kochi city.
  • Salinity intrusion due to rising sea levels and reduction of freshwater flow.
  • Water hyacinth invasion.
• Pathiramanal Bird Sanctuary: A small island in Vembanad Lake. Winter roosting site for migratory ducks and shorebirds from Central Asia.

Static linkage: Geography (Kerala, Vembanad, Ramsar, Kuttanad), environment (wetlands, GIAHS).

GS area: Environment

The Fishing Cat, an apex predator of India's wetlands and mangroves, was highlighted in conservation reports.

• Scientific name: Prionailurus viverrinus.
• Habitat: Wetlands, mangroves, rivers and floodplains. Significant populations in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, Odisha's Chilika Lake area, and Sri Lanka.
• Physical features: Twice the size of a domestic cat. Webbed paws. Excellent swimmer. Name reflects its primary diet of fish (scoops fish with its paws and dives into shallow water).
• IUCN status: Vulnerable (downlisted from Endangered in 2016 due to improved data, but threats remain).
• CITES: Appendix II.
• Wildlife Protection Act: Schedule I.
• Threats: Wetland drainage, mangrove destruction, hunting, and prey depletion.
• Importance: Indicator species for wetland health. Presence of Fishing Cats indicates a healthy fish population and a functioning wetland ecosystem.

Static linkage: Environment (wetland species, IUCN, conservation, mangroves).

GS area: Polity, Economy, Science and Technology

A summary of India's most significant developments in 2024, useful for prelims MCQs on recent events.

• Elections: 18th Lok Sabha elections. NDA won 293 seats (BJP: 240, below majority of 272). NDA formed government with coalition support. Modi's third consecutive term as PM.
• Economy: GDP growth of 8.2 per cent in FY24 (full year). Q2 FY25 GDP slowed to 5.4 per cent. India became the world's fourth-largest stock market by market capitalisation in early 2024.
• ISRO: Aditya-L1 reached Lagrange Point 1 in January 2024. INSAT-3DS launched February 2024. Proba-3 launched December 2024. SpaDeX launched December 2024.
• Foreign policy: PM Modi visited Ukraine (August 2024, the first Indian PM visit since 1991), Poland and Ukraine in the same trip; visited Russia (July 2024); visited Kuwait (December 2024, first in 43 years).
• Defence: INS Tushil commissioned at Kaliningrad (December 2024). Defence exports reached 21,000 crore rupees in FY24.
• Judicial: Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud retired (November 2024). Justice Sanjiv Khanna became Chief Justice.
• Deaths: Manmohan Singh (26 December 2024), Ratan Tata (9 October 2024), Sitaram Yechury (12 September 2024), Ustad Zakir Hussain (15 December 2024).

Static linkage: Polity, economy, science and technology (year in review, 2024 highlights).

GS area: Environment

India's sea turtles are a recurring UPSC topic. A consolidated framework for revision.

• Five sea turtle species in India: Olive Ridley (most numerous), Leatherback (largest, IUCN Vulnerable), Hawksbill (IUCN Critically Endangered, known for tortoiseshell shell), Green Turtle (IUCN Endangered), Loggerhead (IUCN Vulnerable).
• Key nesting sites:
  • Gahirmatha (Odisha): Olive Ridley (largest mass nesting globally).
  • Rushikulya (Odisha): Olive Ridley.
  • Devi river mouth (Odisha): Olive Ridley.
  • Little Andaman, Great Nicobar: Leatherback turtles.
  • Lakshadweep: Green and Hawksbill turtles.
• Protection: All five species are Schedule I of WPA. All are in CITES Appendix I or II.
• Project Sea Turtle: MoEFCC initiative to protect nesting beaches, train fishermen to use TEDs, and monitor nesting data.

Static linkage: Environment (sea turtles, biodiversity, WPA, CITES, Gahirmatha).

• SEBI governance reform (year-end): SEBI proposed stricter disclosure norms for listed companies on environmental, social and governance (ESG) metrics under the Business Responsibility and Sustainability Report (BRSR) Core framework. Applicable to top 1,000 listed companies by market capitalisation.
• New Year 2025 preview (static only): The Code on Wages, 2019 and three other labour codes (Industrial Relations Code, 2020; Code on Social Security, 2020; Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020) had not yet been notified into force as of 31 December 2024. Their enforcement date remained pending.