Indian Classical Dances

Dance is one of the oldest threads in Indian culture. Engravings of community dancing at the rock shelters of Bhimbetka and the bronze Dancing Girl of the Harappan civilisation show how far back it reaches. Mythology gives it a divine status, from Shiva's cosmic tandava to Parvati's answering grace. The first formal treatise on dance, the Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni (compiled between roughly 200 BCE and the 2nd century CE), treats dance as the "complete art". It draws together music, sculpture, poetry and drama. India today has eight classical dance forms recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi. Each is rooted in a region, but all are governed by the same underlying grammar.

The classical vocabulary of dance comes from two ancient texts: the Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni and the Abhinaya Darpan of Nandikeshwara. A legend in the Natya Shastra says Brahma created a fifth Veda, the Natya Veda, by combining elements of the four Vedas. He took words (pathya) from the Rig Veda, gesture (abhinaya) from the Yajur Veda, music (geet) from the Sama Veda, and emotion (rasa) from the Atharva Veda.

The Natya Shastra describes two basic aspects of dance:

• Lasya: the graceful, gentle, feminine aspect, expressing bhava, rasa and abhinaya.
• Tandava: the vigorous, rhythmic, masculine aspect, emphasising movement and rhythm.

The Abhinaya Darpan breaks a dance act into three elements (and a fourth, natya, completes the set):

• Nritta: pure dance: rhythmic steps and movement with no expression or storyline.
• Nritya: expressive dance: the sentiments and emotions conveyed through mime and mudras.
• Natya: the dramatic element: the story narrated through the recital.

Nandikeshwara also describes the Nayaka–Nayika Bhava, in which the eternal deity is the hero (nayaka) and the devotee-performer is the heroine (nayika).

Emotion in dance is carried by the nine rasas (navarasa):

• Shringara: love
• Roudra: anger
• Bibhatsa: disgust
• Veera: heroism
• Shaant: peace and tranquillity
• Haasya: laughter and comedy
• Karuna: tragedy and compassion
• Bhayanak: horror
• Adbhuta: wonder

These moods are expressed through mudras, hand gestures combined with body postures. There are 108 fundamental mudras, used in combination to depict a particular emotion. Knowledge passes from teacher to pupil through the guru-shishya parampara, and each lineage of tradition is called a sampradaya.

The oldest of the classical forms, Bharatanatyam belongs to Tamil Nadu. Its name is read as drawn from Bharata Muni, or alternatively from bhava (expression), raga (melody) and tala (rhythm). It grew out of Sadir, the solo temple dance of the devadasis, and was also called Dasiattam. As the devadasi system declined the form nearly died out. It was revived by the freedom fighter E. Krishna Iyer, and Rukmini Devi Arundale gave it global recognition.

Key features:

• In the early nineteenth century four dance teachers of Thanjavur, the Tanjore Quartet (Chinnaiah, Ponnaiah, Vadivelu and Shivanandam), fixed the structure of a recital. Its stages run Alarippu (invocation), Jatiswaram (pure dance), Shabdam, Varnam (the central nritya), Padam, Jawali and Thillana (the pure-dance finale).
• It is often called the "fire dance", as its movements resemble a dancing flame.
• It gives equal emphasis to tandava and lasya, with major stress on mudras. One principal gesture, Kataka Mukha Hasta, joins three fingers to symbolise "Om".
• The knees are mostly bent and weight is balanced across both feet.
• It uses the Ekaharya Lasyam style, in which a single dancer plays many roles.
• Famous exponents: Yamini Krishnamurthy, Padma Subramaniam, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Mallika Sarabhai.

Kuchipudi takes its name from the Andhra village of Kuchelapuram (Kusselavapuri). It was originally performed by travelling troupes of actors (Kusselavas). In the 17th century the saint Siddhendra Yogi formalised it and wrote the play Bhama Kalapam. Under Vaishnavism it became a temple art of male Brahmins, the Bhagavathalus, drawing on the Bhagavata Purana. It flourished under the Vijayanagar and Golconda rulers. In the 20th century Lakshminarayana Shastry introduced solo recitals and female participation.

Key features:

• It is a dance-drama with difficult footwork, usually performed as a team.
• A predominance of Shringara rasa. Each character enters with a daaru, a short composition of song and dance.
• The dancer may also sing, combining the roles of dancer and singer.
• It is accompanied by Carnatic music in Telugu, with violin and mridangam as principal instruments.
• Famous solo items include Tarangam, in which the dancer performs on the rim of a brass plate, often balancing a pot of water or a row of diyas on the head, and Jala Chitra Nrityam, drawing pictures on the floor with the toes.
• Famous exponents: Raja and Radha Reddy, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indrani Rehman.

Kathakali (from katha, story, and kali, drama) is the dance-drama of Kerala. It grew from two temple dance-dramas, Ramanattam and Krishnattam, patronised by feudal lords. It is also linked to the Sanskrit theatre Koodiyattam and to martial arts. After feudal decline it was revived in the 1930s by the Malayali poet Vallathol Narayana Menon under the patronage of Mukunda Raja.

Key features:

• It is essentially an all-male troupe performance with minimal props but very elaborate facial make-up and headgear.
• Make-up colours carry meaning: green for nobility and virtue, red patches for royalty, a fully red face for evil, black for wickedness, yellow for saints and women, and a white beard for divine beings.
• It conveys emotion through the navarasas, expressed by remarkable movement of the eyes and eyebrows, plus extensive hand gestures.
• Songs are in Manipravalam, a mix of Malayalam and Sanskrit. It is called the "ballad of the east".
• It is performed in the open air with a brass lamp for lighting, accompanied by the chenda and maddalam drums, and symbolises the element of sky/ether.
• Famous exponents: Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopinath, Kottakkal Sivaraman.

Mohiniyattam, the "dance of the enchantress" (Mohini meaning a beautiful woman, attam meaning dance), is a solo female form of Kerala. It was developed by Vadivelu in the 19th century. It gained prominence under the rulers of Travancore, notably Swathi Thirunal. After falling into obscurity it was revived by the poet Vallathol Narayana Menon along with Kalyani Amma.

Key features:

• It combines the grace of Bharatanatyam with the vigour of Kathakali, but with gentle footwork and no thumping of the feet.
• It is lasya-dominant and mainly performed by women, often narrating the feminine dance of Vishnu.
• The costume is distinctive (white and off-white with gold brocade designs), and there is no elaborate make-up. The dancer wears anklet bells (ghungroo).
• Its forty basic movements are called Atavus (Atavakul). It symbolises the element of air.
• Instruments include cymbals, veena, drums and flute.
• Famous exponents: Sunanda Nair, Kalamandalam Kshemavathy, Jayaprabha Menon.

Kerala preserves an older layer of temple performance beside Kathakali and Mohiniyattam. Chakiarkoothu (also written Chakyar Koothu) is a solo narrative art performed by members of the Chakiar caste, a community of temple performers. The artist recites stories from the epics and the Puranas, mixing Sanskrit verse with witty commentary in Malayalam. Sharp social satire is part of the tradition, and the performer enjoyed the licence to mock even kings in the audience. The form is closely related to Koodiyattam, the ancient Sanskrit theatre of Kerala.

Identifying features:

• Performers: men of the Chakiar caste, assisted by women of the Nambiar community who keep time on cymbals.
• Venue: the koothambalam, the dedicated theatre hall built inside a temple compound, gives the art its stage.
• Instrument: the mizhavu, a large copper percussion vessel played with the hands, is the principal accompaniment.
• Audience: as a ritual temple art it was traditionally open only to caste Hindus. Higher-caste Hindus could always witness it. It was the lower castes who were historically excluded from the koothambalam.

Odissi belongs to Odisha, with early evidence in the Udayagiri–Khandagiri caves. Its name comes from the Odra nritya mentioned in the Natya Shastra. It was practised by temple dancers called maharis and patronised by the Jain king Kharavela. With the rise of Vaishnavism the mahari system declined. Young boys dressed as girls, the Gotipuas, then carried it on. It gained international acclaim in the mid-20th century through Charles Fabri and Indrani Rehman.

Key features:

• The tribhanga posture (the body bent at three points: head, torso, knee) is its signature. The chowk posture, hands spread out, depicts masculinity.
• The lower body stays largely static while the torso moves. Intricate geometric shapes earn it the name "mobile sculpture".
• Its recital runs through Mangalacharan (offering to the earth), Batu Nritya, Pallavi, and concludes with Moksha (liberation) or Trikhanda Majura.
• It is accompanied by Hindustani classical music (manjira, pakhawaj, sitar, flute) and the lyrics of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda. It symbolises the element of water.
• Famous exponents: Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra, Guru Pankaj Charan Das, Sonal Mansingh, Sharon Lowen.

Manipuri dance of Manipur traces its mythical origin to the dance of Shiva and Parvati and the festival of Lai Haraoba. It rose to prominence with Vaishnavism in the 15th century, when Krishna became its central theme. Raja Bhagyachandra revived it in the 18th century. Rabindranath Tagore then brought it into the limelight by introducing it at Santiniketan.

Key features:

• It is unique in stressing devotion over sensuality. Faces are covered with a thin veil and facial expression matters less than gentle hand and foot movement.
• It incorporates both tandava and lasya, with emphasis on lasya.
• The Naga Bandha mudra, connecting the body in figure-of-eight curves, is an important posture, and women wear a distinctive stiff long skirt.
• Ras Leela (the love of Radha and Krishna) is a recurring theme. The pung (drum), flute and khartals accompany it, using compositions of Jayadeva and Chandidas.
• Famous exponents: the Jhaveri sisters (Nayana, Suverna, Ranjana, Darshana), Guru Bipin Singh, and Bimbavati Devi, daughter of Guru Bipin Singh and a noted Manipuri dancer in her own right.

Kathak is the classical dance of Uttar Pradesh, born from the Ras Leela of Brajbhoomi. Its name comes from the Kathika, or story-tellers, who recited epic verses with gesture and music. During the Mughal era it moved into the courts and absorbed Persian costume and style. The classical form was later revived by Lady Leela Sokhey in the 20th century.

Key features:

• It is defined by intricate footwork and pirouettes, and is the only major classical form built on the Hindustani music tradition.
• Its distinguishing feature is the development of gharanas (schools):
  • Lucknow: peaked under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. It stresses expression and grace.
  • Jaipur: begun by Bhanuji. It emphasises speed, fluency and long rhythmic patterns.
  • Raigarh: under Raja Chakradhar Singh. It is unique for its stress on percussion.
  • Banaras: under Janakiprasad. It features greater floorwork and emphasis on symmetry.
• A recital includes Thaat, Todas/Tukdas, the Jugalbandi (a contest between dancer and tabla player), Padhant (reciting and demonstrating rhythmic bols) and Tarana.
• It is accompanied by dhrupad music. Thumris, taranas and ghazals were added in the Mughal period.
• Famous exponents: Birju Maharaj, Lachhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Damayanti Joshi.

Sattriya was introduced in its modern form by the Vaishnava saint Shankaradeva in the 15th century in Assam. It takes its name from the Vaishnava monasteries, the Sattras, where it was practised, and is inspired by the Bhakti movement. It is the most recent addition to the list of recognised classical dances.

Key features:

• It grew from earlier Assamese forms, mainly Ojapali and Devadasi traditions, and focuses on devotion, narrating stories of Vishnu.
• It is traditionally performed in groups by male monks called Bhokots as part of daily ritual, combining lasya and tandava.
• Accompanying instruments are the khol (drum), manjira (cymbals) and flute. The songs are Shankaradeva's compositions, the Borgeets.
• Male dancers wear dhoti and paguri (turban). Women wear Assamese jewellery and Ghuri and Chador made of Pat silk.
• Ankia Naat, a Sattriya play written in the Assamese-Maithili language Brajavali, is also called Bhaona and stages stories of Krishna.

Alongside the classical tradition, India has a vast body of folk dances. They are spontaneous, performed by the masses without formal training, and tied to local festivals, harvests and legends. Some of the most exam-relevant:

• Chhau: a martial mask dance (from chhaya, shadow) with three styles: Saraikella (Jharkhand), Mayurbhanj (Odisha, performed without masks) and Purulia (West Bengal). Inscribed by UNESCO in 2010.
• Garba and Dandiya Raas: of Gujarat, performed during Navaratri. Garba circles a garbha deep (lamp pot), Dandiya enacts a mock fight between Durga and Mahishasura.
• Ghoomar: of the Bhil women of Rajasthan, marked by pirouetting in flowing ghaghras.
• Kalbelia: the serpent-like dance of Rajasthan's Kalbelia community, set to the been. UNESCO-listed in 2010.
• Bhangra and Giddha: the energetic harvest dances of Punjab (Giddha being the women's counterpart).
• Bihu: the group dance of Assam, full of pomp and gaiety.
• Thang Ta: the martial sword-and-spear dance of Manipur.
• Singhi Chham: the snow-lion mask dance of Sikkim, honouring Kanchenjunga.
• Cheraw: the bamboo dance of Mizoram.
• Padayani: a martial temple dance of southern Kerala using huge kolam masks.
• Yakshagana: the traditional dance-drama of Karnataka, combining song, dance, elaborate costume and dialogue. Pairing questions often plant it against the wrong state.
• Korku: a tribal dance of Madhya Pradesh, named after the Korku tribe that performs it.
• Thali: a folk dance of Himachal Pradesh.
• Mukna: a folk tradition of Manipur, built around a form of wrestling.
• Jhumar (Jhummar): a harvest dance performed in Jharkhand and Odisha, and equally a folk dance of Haryana and Punjab. Matching questions treat Jhummar–Haryana as a correct pair.
• Raut Nacha (Chhattisgarh, Diwali), Dumhal (the Wattal tribe of Jammu & Kashmir), and Tarangamel (Goa).

Examiners often test the performing arts through match-the-following questions on famous personalities. The trick is to pin each name to one precise field: dance, music, painting, poetry, theatre, history or social work. The names below recur in such questions.

Dance:

• Rukmini Devi Arundale: Bharatanatyam dancer who founded Kalakshetra in Chennai and led the revival of the form.
• Birju Maharaj: the legendary Kathak dancer of the Lucknow gharana.
• Priyadarsini Govind: a leading Bharatanatyam dancer of Chennai.
• Vanashree Rao: a noted Kuchipudi dancer, half of the Jaya Rama Rao and Vanashree Rao duo.

Music:

• Bhimsen Joshi: Hindustani classical vocalist of the Kirana gharana, awarded the Bharat Ratna.
• Bhajan Sopori: exponent of the santoor, the hundred-stringed instrument of Kashmir.
• T. V. Gopalakrishnan: maestro of the mridangam, the principal percussion of Carnatic music.

Other fields, the usual distractors in matching questions:

• Amrita Sher-Gil: pioneering modern painter, often called the mother of modern Indian art.
• Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala': Hindi poet of the Chhayavad movement.
• Neelam Mansingh Chowdhry: theatre director, known for her Chandigarh-based company The Company.
• Romila Thapar: historian of ancient India.
• Mandakini Amte: doctor known for social service and community leadership among the Madia Gond tribals, a Ramon Magsaysay awardee.