UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place of cultural or natural importance so exceptional that it is recognised as the common heritage of all humanity. It is worth protecting for future generations. India is among the most heritage-rich countries in the world. Its sites range from rock-cut Buddhist caves and Mughal tombs to tiger reserves and the Western Ghats. For the exam, three things matter: how a site qualifies, what protection the tag brings, and the specific sites with their states and years of listing.

To be inscribed, a nominated site must first be of "outstanding universal value" and must meet at least one of ten criteria. The first six apply to cultural sites and the last four to natural sites. A site that meets criteria from both groups is treated as a mixed site.

The six cultural criteria are that the site:

• Masterpiece: represents a masterpiece of human creative genius.
• Interchange of values: shows an important interchange of human values over time or within a cultural area, seen in architecture, technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design.
• Unique testimony: bears unique or exceptional testimony to a living or vanished cultural tradition or civilisation.
• Significant stage: is an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble, or landscape that illustrates a significant stage in human history.
• Traditional settlement: is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use or sea-use representative of a culture, especially when it has become vulnerable to irreversible change.
• Associated with events or beliefs: is directly or tangibly associated with events, living traditions, ideas, beliefs, or artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance.

The four natural criteria are that the site:

• Natural beauty: contains superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance.
• Earth's history: is an outstanding example representing major stages of the Earth's history, including the record of life and significant ongoing geological processes or landforms.
• Ecological processes: is an outstanding example of significant ongoing ecological and biological processes in the evolution of terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems and their plant and animal communities.
• Biodiversity habitat: contains the most important natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including threatened species of outstanding value to science or conservation.

The World Heritage tag is not just an honour; it carries legal weight. Once UNESCO declares a place a World Heritage Site, that designation is accepted as prima facie evidence that the site is culturally sensitive. It therefore warrants legal protection.

• Treaty basis: protection flows from the Law of War under the Geneva Convention (its articles, protocols and customs) together with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954) and other rules of international law.
• Article 53 of the Geneva Convention: prohibits, during armed conflict, any act of hostility against historic monuments, works of art or places of worship that form the cultural or spiritual heritage of a people.
• No military use: such objects may not be used in support of the military effort, nor made the object of reprisal.

In short, the listing helps shield a site from destruction or misuse during wartime. It also brings international attention, tourism, restoration funds and access to global conservation resources.

India's cultural sites cover ancient caves, temple complexes, Mughal and colonial monuments, forts, stepwells and even a modern architectural work. The key sites, their state and year of listing are:

• Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves (Maharashtra), 1983. These are rock-cut cave complexes; Ajanta is Buddhist, while Ellora blends Buddhist, Hindu and Jain art.
• Taj Mahal and Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh), 1983. The Taj Mahal is the Mughal marble mausoleum and Agra Fort is the Mughal red-sandstone fort.
• Sun Temple, Konark (Odisha), 1984. The temple was conceived as the Sun God's chariot.
• Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu), 1984. A 7th-century Pallava site including the Pancha Ratha, the Shore Temple, and the Descent of the Ganges (Arjuna's Penance) rock relief.
• Churches and Convents of Goa (1986). Portuguese-era Christian architecture.
• Khajuraho Group of Monuments (Madhya Pradesh), 1986. Hindu and Jain temples such as Kandariya Mahadeva, Vishvanatha and Lakshmana temples.
• Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh), 1986. The short-lived Mughal capital of Akbar.
• Group of Monuments at Hampi (Karnataka), 1986. The Vijayanagara capital, with the Vitthala and Krishna temple complexes and the Lotus Mahal.
• Elephanta Caves (Maharashtra), 1987. Rock-cut Shaiva caves on an island near Mumbai.
• Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (Karnataka), 1987. Chalukya temples including the Virupaksha and Papanatha temples.
• Great Chola Temples (Tamil Nadu), 1987. The Brihadeshwara Temple at Thanjavur and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
• Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), 1989. The Great Stupa and the Ashokan Pillar.
• Humayun's Tomb and Qutub Minar and its Monuments (Delhi), 1993. An early Mughal garden-tomb and the Delhi Sultanate minaret complex.
• Mountain Railways of India: the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (West Bengal, 1999), the Nilgiri Mountain Railway (Tamil Nadu, 2005) and the Kalka–Shimla Railway (Himachal Pradesh, 2008).
• Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bodh Gaya (Bihar), 2002. The site of the Buddha's enlightenment.
• Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), 2003. Prehistoric rock paintings.
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Maharashtra), 2004. The Victoria Terminus, a Gothic-Revival railway station in Mumbai.
• Champaner–Pavagadh Archaeological Park (Gujarat), 2004. A pre-Mughal historic city.
• Red Fort Complex (Delhi), 2007. The Mughal palace-fort of Shah Jahan.
• Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (Rajasthan), 2010. An 18th-century astronomical observatory.
• Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013). Six forts: Chittorgarh, Ranthambhore, Jaisalmer, Kumbhalgarh, Amber and Gagron.
• Rani-ki-Vav (The Queen's Stepwell) (Gujarat), 2014. An ornate Solanki-era stepwell at Patan.
• Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, Capitol Complex, Chandigarh (2016). Part of a transnational modern-architecture listing.
• Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (Bihar), 2016. The ancient Nalanda University.
• Historic City of Ahmedabad (Gujarat), 2017. India's first city to be inscribed as a whole.

The list has kept growing, and the recent additions are heavily tested:

• Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (Maharashtra), 2018. Two waves of city architecture around the Oval Maidan.
• Jaipur City (Rajasthan), 2019. The planned walled city of Sawai Jai Singh II, India's second whole city inscribed after Ahmedabad.
• Dholavira: A Harappan City (Gujarat), 2021. A major Indus Valley urban site in the Rann of Kachchh.
• Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple (Telangana), 2021. A 13th-century Kakatiya temple at Palampet.
• Shantiniketan (West Bengal), 2023. The settlement built around the institution founded by Rabindranath Tagore.
• Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas (Karnataka), 2023. The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somanathapura.
• Moidams of Charaideo (Assam), 2024. The mound-burial system of the Ahom kings.

Note the years carefully. Of the four sites Shantiniketan, Rani-ki-Vav, the Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas and the Mahabodhi Temple, only two entered the list in 2023: Shantiniketan and the Hoysala ensembles. Rani-ki-Vav was inscribed in 2014 and the Mahabodhi Temple in 2002.

Natural sites are recognised for their ecosystems, biodiversity and natural beauty. India's natural sites, with their state and year, are:

• Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (Assam), 1985. A tiger reserve in the Himalayan foothills.
• Kaziranga National Park (Assam), 1985. Home of the one-horned rhinoceros.
• Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Rajasthan), 1985. A major wintering ground for migratory birds.
• Sundarban National Park (West Bengal), 1987. The mangrove delta and habitat of the Royal Bengal Tiger.
• Nanda Devi National Park (1988) and Valley of Flowers (2005) (Uttarakhand). High-altitude Himalayan parks listed together.
• Western Ghats (2012). A global biodiversity hotspot whose sub-clusters include Agasthyamalai, Periyar, Anamalai, Nilgiri, Talakaveri, Kudremukh and Sahyadri.
• Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh), 2014. A high-altitude park of glaciers and alpine meadows.

The one mixed site (meeting both cultural and natural criteria) is:

• Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim), 2016. Listed in the mixed category. It qualifies for its biodiversity around the world's third-highest peak, and also for its sacred cultural significance to local communities.