Climate Change and the International Response
The warming of the planet by greenhouse gases, its impacts, and the global agreements through which nations have tried to tackle it.
The big idea
Think first
The greenhouse effect keeps the Earth warm enough for life. How did something essential to life turn into the greatest environmental threat of our age?
The single greatest environmental challenge of our age is climate change, the warming of the whole planet caused by human activity. The atmosphere belongs to everyone, so no nation can solve it alone. Countries have therefore come together in a series of global agreements. Understanding the science, the impacts and the international response is essential for environment and current-affairs questions.
The greenhouse effect and warming
The Earth is kept warm by the greenhouse effect: certain gases in the atmosphere (chiefly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) trap part of the heat the Earth radiates back to space. A natural greenhouse effect is essential for life.
The problem is that human activity has sharply increased these greenhouse gases. The main sources are burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, clearing forests, and industry. More greenhouse gases strengthen the effect and trap more heat. This causes global warming: a steady rise in the Earth's average temperature.
Other warming agents
Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are not the whole story. Three other agents also warm the atmosphere:
- Water vapour: the most abundant natural greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
- Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6): an industrial gas used in electrical equipment, and one of the most potent greenhouse gases known.
- Soot (black carbon): fine dark particles from incomplete burning. Soot is not a gas, but it warms the air by absorbing solar radiation.
Agriculture and other methane sources
Agriculture is a leading source of greenhouse gases. Flooded rice paddies cut off the oxygen supply to the soil. In these anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions, soil microbes produce methane. The nitrogen fertilisers applied to the same fields release nitrous oxide from the soil. Rice cultivation is therefore the most important human-made source of both methane and nitrous oxide. Other major methane sources are coal mining, domestic animals (which release methane during digestion, a process called enteric fermentation) and natural wetlands.
A hidden methane danger lies in methane hydrates: ice-like deposits of methane locked in the permafrost of the Arctic tundra and under the seafloor. Global warming might thaw these stores and trigger a large release of methane. Once in the atmosphere, methane oxidises into carbon dioxide within a decade or two, so its warming effect is intense but short-lived.
The cement problem
Industry adds its own large share. The cement industry alone accounts for more than 5% of global carbon dioxide emissions. In cement manufacturing, silica-bearing clay is mixed with limestone. During the production of clinker, the limestone is heated and converted into lime. This chemical step, called calcination, releases carbon dioxide. The calcination reaction, not just the fuel burned in the kiln, explains why cement emissions are so high.
India's emissions profile
India's per-capita carbon dioxide emissions are about 2 tonnes a year, far above the 0.5-tonne figure sometimes quoted. India ranks second in the Asia-Pacific region for carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion. Within India, electricity and heat producers are the largest source of carbon dioxide emissions.
One feedback of rising carbon dioxide is positive for plants. Carbon fertilization means increased plant growth caused by the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Plants build tissue from carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, so more of the gas can speed their growth. The term refers to this growth effect alone, not to warming, ocean acidification or adaptation.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements: I. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in India are less than 0.5 t CO₂/capita. II. In terms of CO₂ emissions from fuel combustion, India ranks second in Asia-Pacific region. III. Electricity and heat producers are the largest sources of CO₂ emissions in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: Studies indicate that carbon dioxide emissions from cement industry account for more than 5% of global carbon emissions. Statement II: Silica-bearing clay is mixed with limestone while manufacturing cement. Statement III: Limestone is converted into lime during clinker production for cement manufacturing. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2022UPSCAmong the following crops, which one is the most important anthropogenic source of both methane and nitrous oxide?
Previous-year question
2019UPSCWhich of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate'?
- Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.
- Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.
- Methane in atmosphere oxidises to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2018UPSCWhich of the following statements best describes 'carbon fertilization'?
Previous-year question
2012UPSCThe increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs:
Previous-year question
2010UPSCConsider the following which can be found in the ambient atmosphere:
- Soot
- Sulphur hexafluoride
- Water vapour
Which of the above contribute to the warming up of the atmosphere?
Previous-year question
2010UPSCDue to their extensive rice cultivation, some regions may be contributing to global warming. To what possible reason/reasons is this attributable?
- The anaerobic conditions associated with rice cultivation cause the emission of methane.
- When nitrogen based fertilizers are used, nitrous oxide is emitted from the cultivated soil.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCConsider the following:
- Rice fields
- Coal mining
- Domestic animals
- Wetlands
Which of the above are sources of methane, a major greenhouse gas?
Impacts of climate change
Global warming drives a chain of harmful impacts across the planet:
- Melting glaciers and polar ice, which raises the sea level and threatens low-lying coasts and island nations.
- More frequent and severe extreme weather: heatwaves, droughts, floods and storms.
- Disruption of agriculture and water supplies, threatening food security.
- Loss of species and habitats that cannot adapt fast enough.
These impacts fall hardest on poor countries and communities, who have done least to cause the problem.
Heat beyond human tolerance
Heat itself can become a direct threat to survival, separate from flooding or cyclone risk. Humans cool themselves by sweating: perspiration evaporates from the skin and carries body heat away. The wet-bulb temperature measures heat and humidity together. It is the lowest temperature to which air can be cooled by evaporating water into it. Above a wet-bulb temperature of about 35°C, evaporative cooling fails. Humans and animals can no longer shed body heat through perspiration, and even healthy people resting in the shade cannot survive prolonged exposure.
Beyond 3°C of warming
Scientists also project what happens if warming exceeds about 3°C above pre-industrial levels. Two outcomes stand out:
- Land becomes a carbon source: the terrestrial biosphere, the world's land plants and soils, tends to flip from absorbing carbon to releasing it.
- Widespread coral mortality: most coral reefs die off across the oceans.
Some predictions overshoot the evidence. Wetlands would not all permanently disappear, and cereal cultivation would not become impossible everywhere. Statements claiming such total, universal losses are wrong.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCThe World Bank warned that India could become one of the first places where wet-bulb temperatures routinely exceed 35 °C. Which of the following statements best reflect(s) the implication of the above-said report? I. Peninsular India will most likely suffer from flooding, tropical cyclones and droughts. II. The survival of animals including humans will be affected as shedding of their body heat through perspiration becomes difficult. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2014UPSCThe scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 degree Celsius above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3 degree Celsius above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
- Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source.
- Widespread coral mortality will occur.
- All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
- Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
The IPCC and UNFCCC
The world responded by building scientific and diplomatic institutions:
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the body that assesses the science of climate change, producing reports that guide policy.
- The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), agreed at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, is the global treaty under which nations negotiate. Its members meet each year at the Conference of the Parties (COP).
A key principle of the UNFCCC is "common but differentiated responsibilities". All nations must act. But the rich nations caused most past emissions, so they must do more.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2010UPSCThe United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at:
The Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement
Two landmark agreements came out of this process:
- The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding targets for developed countries to cut their greenhouse-gas emissions. It applied mainly to the rich nations.
- The Paris Agreement (2015) went further: all countries, rich and poor, pledged to limit global warming to well below 2°C (aiming for 1.5°C) above pre-industrial levels, each setting its own national targets.
India is an active participant. It stresses climate justice and the right of developing nations to grow. India is also expanding renewable energy.
Kyoto mechanisms and carbon credits
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005. The developed countries that took binding targets are listed as Annex-I countries. The term comes from the UNFCCC, which groups its parties in annexes; developing countries are non-Annex-I.
Kyoto's lasting innovation was a set of market mechanisms:
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): lets a developed country fund an emission-reduction project in a developing (non-Annex-I) country and earn credits in exchange. The developing host gets investment and clean technology.
- Carbon credits: a credit is awarded to a country or firm that reduces its emissions below its assigned quota. The formal Kyoto unit is the Certified Emission Reduction (CER). Both carbon credits and CERs originate from the Kyoto Protocol.
- Trading: credits are bought and sold at prices determined by the market. No UN body, including UNEP, fixes their price.
Credits are counted in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent because the gases differ in potency. Methane, for example, has a much higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide, so cutting one tonne of methane earns more credit.
Carbon markets and carbon taxes
Carbon markets are expected to be among the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change. When governments auction emission permits or sell credits, the market transfers resources from the private sector to the State.
A related fiscal tool is the carbon tax, a direct levy on emissions. New Zealand was the first country in the world to propose a carbon tax for its people.
Inside the Paris Agreement
Three details about the Paris Agreement are tested often:
- Entry into force: the Agreement was adopted in 2015 but was not signed by all UN members at its inception. It entered into force in 2016, once enough countries had ratified it. Membership grew over time.
- Climate finance: developed countries pledged to mobilise $100 billion per year from 2020 to help developing countries. The figure is $100 billion, not $1,000 billion.
- Article 6: this article sets out the principles of carbon markets under the Agreement, and it also promotes non-market approaches between countries for meeting climate targets. This dual role is why Article 6 features so often in negotiations and in the news.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change is frequently discussed in global discussions on sustainable development and climate change. Statement II: Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change sets out the principles of carbon markets. Statement III: Article 6 of the Paris Agreement on climate change intends to promote inter-country non-market strategies to reach their climate targets. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2023UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change. Statement II: Carbon market transfer resources from private sector to the State. Which of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2016UPSCConsider the following pairs: Terms sometimes seen in the news — Their origin
- Annex-I Countries — Cartagena Protocol
- Certified Emissions Reductions — Nagoya Protocol
- Clean Development Mechanism — Kyoto Protocol
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Previous-year question
2016UPSCThe term 'Intended Nationally Determined Contributions' is sometimes seen in the news in the context of:
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWith reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
- The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
- Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2011UPSCRegarding 'carbon credits', which one of the following statements is not correct?
Previous-year question
2009UPSCIn the context of CO2 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
Previous-year question
2009UPSCThe concept of carbon credit originated from which one of the following?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in respect of carbon credits is one of the Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms.
- Under the CDM, the projects handled pertain only to the Annex-I countries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2006UPSCWhich one of the following countries is the first country in the world to propose a carbon tax for its people to address global warming?
Previous-year question
2005UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Kyoto Protocol came into force in the year 2005.
- Kyoto Protocol deals primarily with the depletion of the Ozone layer.
- Methane as a greenhouse gas is more harmful than carbon dioxide.
Which of the statements is/are correct?
Previous-year question
1998UPSCWorld Environment Conference to discuss global warming was held in 1997 in:
Reducing emissions and mitigation
Mitigation means acting to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions at the source. It is distinct from adaptation, which means adjusting to the warming that is already unavoidable. Mitigation runs through every sector of the economy, from how goods are made to how roads are built.
A powerful mitigation idea is the circular economy. In a circular economy, materials are reused, repaired and recycled instead of being used once and thrown away. This reduces the demand for fresh raw materials and cuts wastage in the production process. Both effects together lower greenhouse-gas emissions, because extracting and processing virgin materials is energy intensive.
Mitigation also shapes everyday engineering choices. In rural road construction, certain materials and methods are preferred because they carry a smaller carbon footprint:
- Copper slag: an industrial by-product reused in road layers, which avoids fresh quarrying.
- Cold mix asphalt: asphalt laid without heating, which saves the large energy cost of hot mixing.
- Geotextiles: polymer fabrics that strengthen the road bed and reduce the need for cement.
By contrast, hot mix asphalt and Portland cement are energy intensive and add to emissions, so they are avoided where greener options exist.
Economists support mitigation policy with the Social Cost of Carbon. It is a measure, in monetary terms, of the long-term damage done by emitting one additional tonne of carbon dioxide in a given year. Governments use this figure in cost-benefit analysis to judge whether a climate policy is worth its price.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: Circular economy reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases. Statement II: Circular economy reduces the use of raw materials as inputs. Statement III: Circular economy reduces wastage in the production process. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCIn rural road construction, the use of which of the following is preferred for ensuring environmental sustainability or to reduce carbon footprint?
- Copper slag
- Cold mix asphalt technology
- Geotextiles
- Hot mix asphalt technology
- Portland cement
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWhich of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the
Carbon sinks and carbon capture
A carbon sink is any reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases. Natural sinks remove a large share of the carbon dioxide humans emit. The most important is the ocean: microscopic phytoplankton absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, pulling it out of the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide does not escape into the outer stratosphere, and it is not removed by being trapped in polar ice. The ocean's living pump does the work.
Several other natural stores matter for the exam:
- Blue carbon: the carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrasses and salt marshes.
- Tropical peatlands: waterlogged soils of partly decayed plants. The Congo Basin holds the world's largest tropical peatland (the Cuvette Centrale), storing roughly three years' worth of global fossil-fuel emissions. Its destruction would be a global climate disaster.
- Soil carbon: farming methods influence it. Zero tillage, which avoids ploughing, preserves soil organic matter and stores carbon. Contour bunding and relay cropping are useful soil and water practices but do not directly sequester carbon.
Beyond natural sinks, engineers are building carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) technologies that pull carbon dioxide out of smokestacks or the open air and lock it away:
- Geological storage: injecting captured carbon dioxide into abandoned and uneconomic coal seams, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline formations, or old mines as carbonated water.
- Direct Air Capture (DAC): machines that strip carbon dioxide straight from ambient air. The captured gas can be sequestered, used in plastic production and food processing, or combined with hydrogen to make synthetic low-carbon aviation fuel.
- Enhanced rock weathering: spreading finely ground basalt rock on farmland, where it reacts with and absorbs carbon dioxide.
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement: adding lime to seawater so the ocean can absorb more carbon dioxide.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCWith reference to Direct Air Capture, an emerging technology, which of the following statements is/are correct? I. It can be used as a way of carbon sequestration. II. It can be a valuable approach for plastic production and in food processing. III. In aviation, it can be a source of carbon for combining with hydrogen to create synthetic low-carbon fuel. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2024UPSCOne of the following regions has the world's largest tropical peatland, which holds about three years' worth of global carbon emissions from fossil fuels; and the possible destruction of which can exert detrimental effect on the global climate. Which one of the following denotes that region?
Previous-year question
2023UPSCConsider the following activities:
- Spreading finely ground basalt rock on farmlands extensively
- Increasing the alkalinity of oceans by adding lime
- Capturing carbon dioxide released by various industries and pumping it into abandoned subterranean mines in the form of carbonated waters
How many of the above activities are often considered and discussed for carbon capture and sequestration?
Previous-year question
2021UPSCWhat is blue carbon?
Previous-year question
2017UPSCIn the context of mitigating the impending global warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, which of the following can be the potential sites for carbon sequestration?
- Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
- Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
- Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2012UPSCConsider the following agricultural practices:
- Contour bunding
- Relay cropping
- Zero tillage
In the context of global climate change, which of the above helps/help in carbon sequestration/storage in the soil?
Previous-year question
2011UPSCHuman activities in the recent past have caused the increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but a lot of it does not remain in the lower atmosphere because of?
- Its escape into the outer stratosphere.
- The photosynthesis by phytoplankton in the oceans.
- The trapping of air in the polar ice caps.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Global climate initiatives
Treaties are only part of the global response. A web of initiatives, coalitions and tools now drives climate action, and the examiner loves to test who runs what.
Initiatives under the UN system include:
- REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation): a UN programme that pays developing countries to protect forests. Well-designed REDD+ protects biodiversity, strengthens forest resilience and reduces rural poverty at the same time.
- Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now: an initiative of the UNFCCC Secretariat that promotes voluntary climate neutrality.
- Common Carbon Metric: a UNEP-supported standard for assessing the carbon footprint of building operations around the world.
- Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC): a voluntary partnership open to all countries, not a G20 body. It targets short-lived climate pollutants: methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
- New York Declaration on Forests (2014): first endorsed at the UN Climate Summit, it sets a voluntary, non-binding timeline to end forest loss. Governments, big companies and indigenous communities endorsed it. India was not among the original signatories.
- COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health: a non-binding pledge to decarbonise the health sector. India refrained from signing it, fearing that decarbonising the health sector could compromise the resilience of its health-care system.
The European Union runs its own climate architecture. The Global Climate Change Alliance is an EU initiative giving technical and financial support to developing countries so they can build climate change into their development policies and budgets. The Nature Restoration Law is an EU law with binding targets to restore degraded ecosystems. The Net-Zero Industry Act, approved by the European Parliament, boosts clean-technology manufacturing within the EU. The EU's carbon-neutrality target year is 2050, not 2040.
Non-government bodies supply the data and networks:
- Climate Action Tracker: a database created by a coalition of research organisations that monitors countries' emission-reduction pledges.
- The Climate Group: an international non-profit that builds large business and government networks. It launched EP100, which gathers companies, including Indian firms, committed to energy efficiency, and it serves as secretariat of the Under2 Coalition of sub-national governments.
- Greenhouse Gas Protocol: an international accounting tool, developed by the World Resources Institute and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, that helps governments and businesses quantify and manage their emissions.
- Greendex: an annual survey by the National Geographic Society and GlobeScan measuring environmentally sustainable consumer behaviour across countries. India topped the 2009 score.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: At the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28), India refrained from signing the "Declaration on Climate and Health". Statement II: The COP28 Declaration on Climate and Health is a binding declaration; and if signed, it becomes mandatory to decarbonize health sector. Statement III: If India's health sector is decarbonized, the resilience of its health-care system may be compromised. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2025UPSCWhich organization has enacted the Nature Restoration Law (NRL) to tackle climate change and biodiversity loss?
Previous-year question
2024UPSCConsider the following statements: Statement I: The European Parliament approved the Net-Zero Industry Act recently. Statement II: The European Union intends to achieve carbon neutrality by 2040 and therefore aims to develop all of its own clean technology by that time. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Previous-year question
2022UPSC"Climate Action Tracker" which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a:
Previous-year question
2022UPSCConsider the following statements:
- "The Climate Group" is an international non-profit organization that drives climate action by building large networks and runs them.
- The International Energy Agency in partnership with the Climate Group launched a global initiative "EP100".
- EP100 brings together leading companies committed to driving innovation in energy efficiency and increasing competitiveness while delivering on emission reduction goals.
- Some Indian companies are members of EP100.
- The International Energy Agency is the Secretariat to the "Under2 Coalition".
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2021UPSCThe 'Common Carbon Metric', supported by UNEP, has been developed for:
Previous-year question
2021UPSCWith reference to the New York declaration on Forests, which of the following statements are correct?
- It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014.
- It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests.
- It is a legally binding international declaration.
- It is endorsed by governments, big companies and indigenous communities.
- India was one of the signatories at its inception.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2018UPSC'Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now' is an initiative launched by:
Previous-year question
2017UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce Short Lived Climate Pollutants is a unique initiative of G20 group of countries.
- The CCAC focuses on methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2017UPSCWith reference to 'Global Climate Change Alliance', which of the following statements is/are correct?
- It is an initiative of the European Union.
- It provides technical and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their development policies and budgets.
- It is coordinated by World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD).
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWhat is 'Greenhouse Gas Protocol'?
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWhich of the following statements is/are correct? Proper design and effective implementation of UN-REDD+ Programme can significantly contribute to
- Protection of biodiversity
- Resilience of forest ecosystems
- Poverty reduction
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2010UPSCAs a result of their annual survey, the National Geographic Society and an international polling firm Globe Scan gave India top rank in Greendex 2009 score. What is this score?
Climate finance mechanisms
Climate action costs money, and developing countries cannot bear the burden alone. A set of dedicated funds channels finance from rich nations and multilateral banks to climate projects:
- Green Climate Fund (GCF): established under the UNFCCC to assist developing countries with both adaptation and mitigation. It was not founded by UNEP, the OECD or the development banks.
- Global Environment Facility (GEF): serves as the financial mechanism for several environmental treaties, including the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UNFCCC. It funds projects; it does not conduct scientific research itself.
- Forest Carbon Partnership Facility: a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society and indigenous peoples. It gives countries financial and technical help for their REDD+ efforts. It does not fund university research.
- BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes: a fund managed by the World Bank to promote low-emission land use and forestry.
- Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific: launched by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to mobilise money for nature-based solutions in the region.
The exam trap in this area is attribution. Match each fund to its parent: GCF to the UNFCCC, GEF to the conventions it finances, the BioCarbon Fund to the World Bank, and the Nature Solutions Finance Hub to the ADB.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCWhich one of the following launched the 'Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific'?
Previous-year question
2015UPSC'BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest Landscapes' is managed by the:
Previous-year question
2015UPSCWhich of the following statements regarding 'Green Climate Fund' is/are correct?
- It is intended to assist the developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
- It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECD, Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2015UPSCWith reference to 'Forest Carbon Partnership Facility', which of the following statements is/are correct?
- It is global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society and indigenous peoples.
- It provides financial aid to universities, individual scientists and institutions involved in scientific forestry research to develop eco-friendly and climate adaptation technologies for sustainable forest management.
- It assists the countries in their 'REDD+ (Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation+)' efforts by providing them with financial and technical assistance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2014UPSCWith reference to 'Global Environment Facility', which of the following statements is/are correct?
Key takeaways
- The greenhouse effect (CO2, methane, nitrous oxide) traps heat. Excess gases from fossil fuels cause global warming
- Impacts: melting ice and rising seas, extreme weather, threats to farming and species, hitting the poor hardest
- The IPCC assesses the science. The UNFCCC (Rio, 1992) is the negotiating treaty, meeting yearly at COP, under "common but differentiated responsibilities"
- The Kyoto Protocol (1997) bound developed nations to cut emissions. The Paris Agreement (2015) committed all nations to limit warming below 2°C
- Circular economy: less raw material, less waste, fewer emissions
- Social Cost of Carbon: monetary damage per tonne of CO2
- Sinks: phytoplankton, blue carbon, Congo Basin peatland, zero tillage
- Capture: DAC, geological storage, basalt weathering, ocean liming
- CCAC targets methane, black carbon, HFCs; REDD+ protects forests
- GHG Protocol = accounting tool; Climate Action Tracker = research database
- Green Climate Fund under UNFCCC; GEF finances CBD and UNFCCC
- BioCarbon Fund: World Bank; Nature Solutions Finance Hub: ADB
- Cement: over 5% of global CO2, via calcination of limestone
- Rice paddies: top human source of methane and nitrous oxide
- Water vapour: most abundant natural greenhouse gas
- Wet-bulb 35°C: perspiration can no longer cool the body
- CDM and carbon credits (CERs) come from Kyoto; in force 2005
- Paris: in force 2016; $100 billion per year from 2020
- Article 6 of Paris: carbon markets plus non-market approaches
- New Zealand first to propose a carbon tax
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