Agriculture in India
Agriculture is the backbone of India, feeding the nation and employing most of its people through varied farming types, cropping seasons and major crops.
The big idea
Think first
A tribal family clears a forest patch to grow just enough food to eat, while a modern estate ships cotton abroad. How does one country hold both worlds of farming at once?
Agriculture is the backbone of India. About half of the country's people still depend on farming for their living. It feeds the entire nation of more than a billion. Indian agriculture has many faces, from a tribal family growing just enough to eat on a small forest clearing to a modern farm growing cotton for export. Understanding the types of farming, the crop seasons, the major crops and the reforms that have modernised it is central to the geography of India.
Who farms in India
The national Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households fills in the human picture. Among the states, Rajasthan has the highest share of households that are agricultural. The Other Backward Classes form the largest social group among agricultural households, at roughly 45 per cent. Kerala stands out for a different reason. Its agricultural households earn most of their income from non-farm sources such as salaries, wages and business, not from cultivation itself.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2018UPSCAs per the NSSO 70th Round 'Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households', consider the following statements:
- Rajasthan has the highest percentage share of agricultural households among its rural households.
- Out of the total agricultural households in the country, a little over 60 percentage belongs to OBCs.
- In Kerala, a little over 60 percent agricultural households reported to have maximum income from sources other than agricultural activities.
Which of the statements given below is/are correct?
Agriculture among the primary activities
Geographers group the work people do into broad kinds of economic activity. The most basic are the primary activities, those that take resources directly from nature. They include gathering, pastoralism, agriculture, fishing and mining. Most of the developing world still depends on them. Agriculture is the most important primary activity. Its older cousins survive alongside it.
- Gathering: collecting wild plants, fruits, nuts, honey and other forest produce. It survives among some forest communities and supplies products such as rubber and medicinal plants.
- Pastoralism: the rearing of animals. It takes two forms. Nomadic herding moves herders and animals in search of pasture, as in dry and mountain regions. Commercial livestock rearing is large-scale, organised ranching of animals for the market.
- Mining: the extraction of valuable minerals from the earth. Whether a deposit is worth mining depends on how rich it is, how easy it is to reach, and the demand and price for the mineral. Surface (open-cast) mining is used when the mineral lies near the surface. It is cheaper and safer. Underground (shaft) mining is used for deep deposits. It is more costly and dangerous, requiring shafts and tunnels. Mining supplies the raw materials (coal, iron, copper, petroleum) on which industry depends, but it can scar the land and harm the environment.
Check yourself
Herders in a dry region move constantly with their animals in search of fresh pasture. Which activity is this?
Check yourself
A coal seam lies close to the surface. Which mining method would the company most likely choose, and why?
Types of farming
Farming in India ranges from the most basic to the highly commercial.
Primitive subsistence farming is practised on small patches of land with simple tools and family labour. It depends on the monsoon and the natural fertility of the soil. Its best-known form is shifting cultivation (called jhum in the north-east). A plot of forest is cleared, cultivated for a few years, then abandoned for a new one.
Intensive subsistence farming is practised where the population is large and farms are small. The farmer uses large amounts of labour, fertiliser and irrigation. The goal is to get the maximum output from a small piece of land.
Commercial farming grows crops mainly for sale in the market. It uses modern inputs such as high-yielding seeds, fertilisers and machines. Plantation farming is a type of commercial farming. A single crop like tea, coffee or rubber is grown on a large estate.
The same types appear worldwide. Shifting cultivation is common in tropical forests. Intensive subsistence farming is typical of monsoon Asia. Commercial farming adds two more forms. Commercial grain farming uses large mechanised farms to grow grain, mainly wheat, for sale. Mixed farming raises crops and animals together on the same farm. The type of agriculture practised in a place depends on the climate, the soil, the level of technology and the market.
Newer models of organising the farm
Three newer models refine these basic types.
- Small Farmer Large Field (SFLF): marginal farmers with tiny adjoining plots form a group and synchronise their operations. They sow the same crop at the same time, buy inputs together and harvest together, so the small plots work like one large field. No farmer surrenders ownership of land.
- Conservation Agriculture: rests on three pillars. The soil is disturbed as little as possible (minimum or zero tillage). The surface is kept under a permanent cover of crop residue. Crops are rotated or diversified rather than repeated.
- Permaculture: designs the farm to mimic a natural ecosystem. It discourages monoculture, grows many species together, keeps the soil mulched and covered, and uses little chemical input and far less water. Conventional chemical farming is its opposite: dominant monoculture, heavy fertiliser and pesticide doses, and intensive irrigation.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2023UPSCWhich one of the following best describes the concept of 'Small Farmer Large Field'?
Previous-year question
2021UPSCHow is permaculture farming different from conventional chemical farming? 1) Permaculture farming discourages monocultural practices but in conventional chemical farming, monoculture practices are pre-dominant. 2) Conventional chemical farming can cause increase in soil salinity but the occurrence of such phenomenon is not observed in permaculture farming. 3) Conventional chemical farming is easily possible in semi-arid regions but permaculture farming is not so easily possible in such regions. 4) Practice of mulching is very important in permaculture farming but not necessarily so in conventional chemical farming. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2018UPSCWith references to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of 'Conservation Agriculture' assumes significance. Which of the following fall under the Conservation Agriculture?
- Avoiding the monoculture practices
- Adopting minimum tillage
- Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops
- Using crop residues to cover soil surface
- Adopting spatial and temporal crop sequencing/crop rotations
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2012UPSCWhich of the following is the chief characteristic of 'mixed farming'?
Cropping seasons
India has three main cropping seasons.
- Rabi crops are sown in winter (around October to December) and harvested in summer (April to June). Wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard are rabi crops.
- Kharif crops are sown with the onset of the monsoon (June to July) and harvested in September to October. Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton and groundnut are kharif crops.
- Zaid is a short summer season between rabi and kharif, used for quick-growing crops like watermelon, cucumber and fodder.
Acreage within the kharif season is very unevenly spread. Rice occupies the largest kharif area by a wide margin. The area under cotton is larger than the area under sugarcane. The area under jowar is smaller than the combined area under oilseeds. Sugarcane acreage has stayed broadly stable over the years. It has not steadily declined.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2019UPSCWith reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements:
- Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
- Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
- Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
- Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2013UPSCConsider the following crops:
- Cotton
- Groundnut
- Rice
- Wheat
Which of these are Kharif crops?
Previous-year question
2004UPSCConsider the following crops:
- Cotton
- Groundnut
- Maize
- Mustard
Which of the above are Kharif crops?
Major crops
India grows a great variety of crops.
Among food crops, rice is the staple food of the majority. It needs high temperature and plenty of water. Wheat is the second most important food grain and the main crop of the north and north-west. It needs a cool growing season. Millets such as jowar, bajra and ragi are hardy, nutritious "coarse grains". Pulses are the main source of protein in a largely vegetarian diet. Being legumes, they also help restore soil fertility.
Among cash crops, sugarcane is grown for sugar and gur. Cotton needs black soil and is the raw material for the textile industry. Jute, the "golden fibre", grows in the wet Ganga–Brahmaputra delta. Tea and coffee are important plantation crops, India being a leading producer of tea.
What each crop needs
- Wheat: moderate temperature and moderate rainfall. Too much heat or too much water harms it.
- Cotton: a subtropical kharif crop. It cannot tolerate frost. It needs about 50–100 cm of rainfall and a light, well-drained soil that can still hold moisture, which is why the black soil of the Deccan suits it.
- Tea: a warm, moist, frost-free climate with showers spread through the year. New bushes are raised from cuttings of high-yielding plants.
- Coffee: less tolerant of direct heat. It is grown under shade trees on hill slopes and is raised from seedlings.
Where the crops grow
- Tea: beyond the famous Assam and West Bengal gardens, tea is also grown in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura.
- Cotton: the cotton belt runs across north-western and western India. Maharashtra is the classic cotton state of the black-soil Deccan.
- Sugarcane: Uttar Pradesh is the largest producing state, followed by Maharashtra, with Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh next. Mandya in Karnataka is a well-known sugarcane district.
- Jute: concentrated in West Bengal in the wet delta. The Barak valley of Assam is another jute tract.
- Groundnut: Gujarat is the leading producer.
- Tapioca: a staple tuber crop of Kerala.
- Coffee: Chikmagalur in Karnataka is the classic coffee district.
- Orchids: Arunachal Pradesh is famous for them.
Three regions invite map confusion. Kinnaur, an apple-growing district, lies in Himachal Pradesh. Mewat lies across southern Haryana and adjoining Rajasthan, not in Madhya Pradesh. The Coromandel coast is the south-eastern coast, covering Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh.
India in the world market
- Turmeric: India is the world's largest producer and exporter, with more than 30 varieties grown, mainly in Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
- Rice: India is the world's largest rice exporter. Even so, only a small share of the world's rice crop ever crosses borders, because most rice is eaten in the country that grows it.
- Sugar: India is the world's largest producer of sugar.
- Silk: India is the only country that produces all five known commercial varieties of silk: mulberry, tropical tasar, oak tasar, eri and muga.
- Edible oil: India imports it in large quantities. Oilseeds are mostly rainfed, their yields are low, and acreage has shifted to assured-price cereals, so domestic output falls short of demand.
Crop facts that recur in exams
- Niger: a kharif oilseed covered by the MSP. It is grown widely in tribal areas, where its seed oil is used for cooking.
- Maize: more than a food grain. It supplies starch to industry, serves as a feedstock for biofuel, and is used in making beverages.
- Pulses: about 90 per cent rainfed, and the area under them has stayed nearly stagnant for decades. Black gram is grown in both kharif and rabi. Cowpea, green gram and pigeon pea serve triple duty as pulse, fodder and green manure.
- Nitrogen fixers: legumes such as alfalfa, chickpea and clover fix atmospheric nitrogen through bacteria in their root nodules.
- Rainfed trio: groundnut, sesamum and pearl millet are typical rainfed crops.
- Sugarcane: the least water-efficient of India's major crops. New plantings are increasingly raised from bud chips and tissue-culture plantlets instead of whole-cane setts. These germinate faster and cut the cost of seed material.
- Moringa and tamarind: moringa (drumstick) is a fast-growing, drought-hardy tree with highly nutritious pods and leaves. Tamarind, though grown across South India for centuries, originated in Africa.
By sheer tonnage, sugarcane is India's biggest single crop. Among food grains, rice leads and wheat comes second.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements about turmeric during the year 2022–23: I. India is the largest producer and exporter of turmeric in the world. II. More than 30 varieties of turmeric are grown in India. III. Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major turmeric producing States in India. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2023UPSCConsider the following statements:
- The Government of India provides Minimum Support Price for niger (Guizotia abyssinica) seeds.
- Niger is cultivated as a Kharif crop.
- Some tribal people in India use niger seed oil for cooking.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Previous-year question
2022UPSCConsider the following States: Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States?
Previous-year question
2022UPSCWhich of the following are nitrogen-fixing plants?
- Alfalfa
- Amaranth
- Chickpea
- Clover
- Purslane (Kulfa)
- Spinach
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2022UPSCWith reference to the "Tea Board" in India, consider the following statements:
- The Tea Board is a statutory body.
- It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
- The Tea Board's Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.
- The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2021UPSCAmong the following, which one is the least water-efficient crop?
Previous-year question
2021UPSCConsider the following statements: 1) Moringa (drumstick tree) is a leguminous evergreen tree. 2) Tamarind tree is endemic to South Asia. 3) In India, most of the tamarind is collected as minor forest produce. 4) India exports tamarind and seeds of moringa. 5) Seeds of moringa and tamarind can be used in the production of biofuels. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSC"The crop is subtropical in nature. A hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at least 210 frost-free days and 50 to 100 centimeters of rainfall for its growth. A light well-drained soil capable of retaining moisture is ideally suited for the cultivation of the crop." Which one of the following is that crop?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWith reference to pulse production in India, consider the following statements:
- Black gram can be cultivated as both kharif and rabi crop.
- Green-gram alone accounts for nearly half of pulse production.
- In the last three decades, while the production of kharif pulses has increased, the production of rabi pulses has decreased.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWith reference to the current trends in the cultivation of sugarcane in India, consider the following statements:
- A substantial saving in seed material is made when 'bud chip settlings' are raised in a nursery, and transplanted in the main field.
- When direct planting of setts is done, the germination percentage is better with single-budded setts as compared to setts with many buds.
- If bad weather conditions prevail when setts are directly planted, single-budded setts have better survival as compared to large setts.
- Sugarcane can be cultivated using settlings prepared from tissue culture.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2019UPSCAmong the following, which one is the largest exporter of rice in the world in the last five years?
Previous-year question
2014UPSCConsider the following pairs: Region — Well-known for the production of
- Kinnaur: Areca nut
- Mewat: Mango
- Coromandel: Soya bean
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
Previous-year question
2014UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Maize can be used for the production of starch.
- Oil extracted from maize can be a feedstock for biodiesel.
- Alcoholic beverages can be produced by using maize.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2012UPSCConsider the following crops of India:
- Cowpea
- Green gram
- Pigeon pea
Which of the above is/are used as pulse, fodder and green manure?
Previous-year question
2012UPSCConsider the following crops of India:
- Groundnut
- Sesamum
- Pearl millet
Which of the above is/are predominantly rainfed crop/crops?
Previous-year question
2011UPSCAmong the following states, which one has the most suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop an export oriented industry in this field?
Previous-year question
2011UPSCThe lower Gangetic plain is characterised by humid climate with high temperature throughout the year. Which one among the following pairs of crops is most suitable for this region?
Previous-year question
2010UPSCIn India, during the last decade the total cultivated land for which one of the following crops has remained more or less stagnant?
Previous-year question
2010UPSCTamil Nadu is a leading producer of mill-made cotton yarn in the country. What could be the reason?
- Black cotton soil is the predominant type of soil in the State.
- Rich pool of skilled labour is available.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2010UPSCThough coffee and tea both are cultivated on hill slopes, there is some difference between them regarding their cultivation. In this context, consider the following statements:
- Coffee plant requires a hot and humid climate of tropical areas whereas tea can be cultivated in both tropical and subtropical areas.
- Coffee is propagated by seeds but tea is propagated by stem cuttings only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Chikmagalur is well-known for sugar production.
- Mandya is well-known as a coffee-production region.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCWhich of the following pairs about India's economic indicator and agricultural production (all in rounded figures) are correctly matched?
- GDP per capita (current prices): Rs 37,000
- Rice: 180 million tons
- Wheat: 75 million tons
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2007UPSCAssertion (A): There are no tea plantations in any African country. Reason (R): Tea plants need fertile soil with high humus.
Previous-year question
2007UPSCWhich one of the following is the correct sequence in the decreasing order of production (in million tonnes) of the given foodgrains in India?
Previous-year question
2005UPSCConsider the following statements:
- India is the only country in the world producing all the five known commercial varieties of silk.
- India is the largest producer of sugar in the world.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2004UPSCAssertion (A): India does not export natural rubber. Reason (R): About 97% of India's demand for natural rubber is met from domestic production.
Previous-year question
2004UPSCConsider the following statements: India continues to be dependent on imports to meet the requirement of oilseeds in the country because:
- Farmers prefer to grow food grains with highly remunerative support prices.
- Most of the cultivation of oilseed crops continues to be dependent on rainfall.
- Oils from the seeds of tree origin and rice bran have remained unexploited.
- It is far cheaper to import oilseeds than to cultivate the oilseed crops.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2003UPSCAssertion (A): The eastern coast of India produces more rice than the western coast. Reason (R): The eastern coast receives more rainfall than the western coast.
Previous-year question
2002UPSCWith reference to Indian agriculture, which one of the following statements is correct?
Previous-year question
2000UPSCThe correct sequence in decreasing order of the four sugarcane producing States in India is:
Previous-year question
1996UPSCWhich of the following pairs of states and their important crops are correctly matched? I. Kerala: Tapioca II. Maharashtra: Cotton III. W. Bengal: Jute IV. Gujarat: Groundnut Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Previous-year question
1996UPSCWhich one of the following areas of India produces largest amount of cotton?
Previous-year question
1996UPSCWhich one of the following is an important crop of the Barak valley?
Previous-year question
1996UPSCWhich one of the following sets of conditions is necessary for a good cultivation of wheat?
Previous-year question
1995UPSCIn which one of the following crops is international trade low in the context of total produce?
Livestock and animal husbandry
Farming in India is rarely crops alone. Most farm households also keep animals for milk, draught power and manure. India has the largest livestock population in the world. It holds the highest count of cattle and buffaloes of any country. This makes animal husbandry a major source of income, especially for small farmers.
The government runs the Rashtriya Gokul Mission to develop and conserve indigenous cattle and buffalo breeds in a scientific and holistic manner. The mission matters for the rural poor for a clear reason. Most low-producing indigenous animals are kept by small and marginal farmers and landless labourers. Raising the productivity of these breeds therefore lifts the incomes of the poorest rural households.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2025UPSCConsider the following statements about the Rashtriya Gokul Mission: I. It is important for the upliftment of rural poor as majority of low producing indigenous animals are with small and marginal farmers and landless labourers. II. It was initiated to promote indigenous cattle and buffalo rearing and conservation in a scientific and holistic manner. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCWhich one amongst the following has the largest livestock population in the world?
Land, soils and irrigation
India's land endowment is large but unevenly used. India has more arable land than China. Yet China irrigates a higher proportion of its farmland and gets a higher average yield per hectare. The share of net sown area, the land actually cultivated in a year, also varies across states. West Bengal has a higher share of its area under the plough than Andhra Pradesh, which has a diverse mix of soils rather than one dominant type.
Soil quality decides how well land holds water and nutrients. A high content of organic matter increases the soil's water-holding capacity. Soil also plays an active part in nutrient cycles, including the sulphur cycle. Irrigation has a hidden cost: water applied over a long period can cause waterlogging and salinization. How salinization damages the soil is explained in the next section.
Several field practices conserve water and nutrients.
- Reduced or zero tillage: disturbing the soil less cuts evaporation and keeps moisture in.
- Crop residue mulching: leaving residue on the field shades the soil and holds water.
- Gypsum: a soil amendment that improves the structure of alkaline soils. It is not mainly a water-conservation measure.
- Fertigation: supplying fertiliser dissolved in irrigation water. It lets the farmer control the alkalinity of irrigation water, raises nutrient availability to plants and reduces leaching of nutrients. Sparingly soluble fertilisers such as rock phosphate cannot be applied this way.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2023UPSCConsider the following statements:
- India has more arable area than China
- The proportion of irrigated area is more in India as compared to China
- The average productivity per hectare in Indian agriculture is higher than that in China
How many of the above statements are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWhat are the advantages of fertigation in agriculture?
- Controlling the alkalinity of irrigation water is possible.
- Efficient application of Rock Phosphate and all other phosphatic fertilizers is possible.
- Increased availability of nutrients to plants is possible.
- Reduction in the leaching of chemical nutrients is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2018UPSCWith reference to agriculture soils consider the following statements:
- A high content of organic matter drastically reduces its water holding capacity.
- Soil does not play role in the sulphur cycle.
- Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to the salinization of some agricultural lands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2017UPSCWhich of the following practices can help in water conservation in agriculture?
- Reduced or zero tillage of the land
- Applying gypsum before irrigating the field
- Allowing crop residue to remain in the field
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2006UPSCAssertion (A): The percentage of net sown area in the total area of Andhra Pradesh is less as compared to that of West Bengal. Reason (R): The soil of most of Andhra Pradesh is laterite.
Irrigation and water management
How water is applied matters as much as how much is applied. Drip irrigation delivers water slowly at the plant's roots. It reduces weed growth between rows and reduces soil erosion. It does not reduce soil salinity: salts can in fact accumulate near the drip points. More broadly, micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) cuts fertiliser and nutrient loss and, by reducing excessive pumping, can check the receding of the groundwater table. It is not the only means of irrigation in dryland farming, which is largely rainfed.
Poorly managed irrigation causes salinization. Water that accumulates in the soil evaporates and leaves salts and minerals behind. The salts clog soil pores and make some soils impermeable, which starves roots of air and water.
Two government programmes are frequently tested.
- Command Area Development Programme (1974-75): launched to improve water-use efficiency in the command areas of irrigation projects.
- Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (1996-97): central loan assistance to states to complete large stalled irrigation projects. It was not a loan scheme for poor farmers.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWhich of the following is/are the advantage/advantages of practising drip irrigation?
- Reduction in weed
- Reduction in soil salinity
- Reduction in soil erosion
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2015UPSCConsider the following statements:
- The Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme was launched during 1996-97 to provide loan assistance to poor farmers.
- The Command Area Development Programme was launched in 1974-75 for the development of water-use efficiency.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2011UPSCSalinization occurs when the irrigation water accumulated in the soil evaporates, leaving behind salts and minerals. What are the effects of Salinization on the irrigated land?
Previous-year question
2011UPSCWith reference to micro-irrigation, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Fertilizer/nutrient loss can be reduced.
- It is the only means of irrigation in dry land farming.
- In some areas of farming, receding of ground water table can be checked.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Fertilisers, biofertilisers and biopesticides
Chemical fertilisers raised yields, but their misuse carries costs. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers increases soil acidity and causes nitrate leaching into groundwater. It does not multiply nitrogen-fixing microorganisms: high soil nitrogen actually suppresses them. To improve efficiency, the government mandates neem-coated urea. The neem coating acts as a nitrification inhibitor. It slows the dissolution of urea in the soil, so nitrogen is released gradually and less is lost.
Biofertilisers are living organisms that supply nutrients to crops. Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as Nostoc carry the nitrogenase enzyme. They convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form crop plants can absorb readily. Agaricus, a mushroom, and Spirogyra, a green alga, do not fix nitrogen and are not biofertilisers.
Biopesticides are pest-control products derived from living organisms. All three major kinds of organisms contribute.
- Bacteria: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin kills insect larvae.
- Fungi: Beauveria bassiana infects and kills insect pests.
- Flowering plants: neem and pyrethrum yield natural pesticides.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWhy does the Government of India promote the use of 'Neem-coated Urea' in agriculture?
Previous-year question
2015UPSCWhat can be the impact of excessive/inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture?
- Proliferation of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms in soil can occur.
- Increase in the acidity of soil can take place
- Leaching of nitrate to the ground-water can occur.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2013UPSCConsider the following organisms:
- Agaricus
- Nostoc
- Spirogyra
Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/biofertilizers?
Previous-year question
2012UPSCConsider the following kinds of organisms:
- Bacteria
- Fungi
- Flowering plants
Some species of which of the above kinds of organisms are employed as biopesticides?
Previous-year question
2010UPSCWhich features of some species of blue-green algae helps promote them as bio-fertilizers?
Technological and institutional reforms
After independence, agriculture was modernised through reforms of two kinds.
Institutional reforms changed the rules of land. Land reforms abolished the old zamindari system and tried to give land to the tiller. They also consolidated scattered holdings into larger blocks.
Technological reforms changed the methods of farming. The Green Revolution of the 1960s introduced high-yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers and irrigation. This sharply raised the output of wheat and rice and made India self-sufficient in food grains. The White Revolution (Operation Flood) did the same for milk. The government also supports farmers by announcing a Minimum Support Price (MSP) for crops. It also provides crop insurance and cheap loans (Kisan Credit Card).
The people behind the Green Revolution
Norman Borlaug, the breeder of the dwarf wheats, was an American scientist from the USA. He is often called the father of the Green Revolution. The high-yielding wheat varieties released in India included Sonalika and Arjun.
Price support and procurement, precisely
The MSP system has precise rules that exams probe.
- Who recommends, and for what: the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends MSPs for about 22–23 crops, spanning cereals, pulses, oilseeds and commercial crops. Its stated objectives are assured remunerative prices for farmers and a balanced cropping pattern.
- Procurement is limited and targeted: the government does not buy every crop everywhere. Actual purchase is concentrated on rice and wheat in selected states. The open-market price can rule above the MSP. The MSP is only a floor, not the ruling price.
- FCI economic cost: the full cost of grain to the Food Corporation of India equals the MSP plus procurement incidentals plus the cost of distribution.
- Sugarcane stands apart: its price is the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP), approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA), not announced with the MSPs. Earlier, cane carried a Statutory Minimum Price fixed under the Sugarcane (Control) Order, issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955.
- Subsidy versus public investment: input subsidies on fertiliser, power and water support current consumption. Public investment in irrigation works, research and rural roads builds long-term capacity and gives higher returns. Economists warn that rising subsidies have crowded out such investment.
Credit and insurance, precisely
The Kisan Credit Card provides short-term credit for the working capital of cultivation, the household's consumption needs, post-harvest expenses and the upkeep of farm assets. It is not meant for buying tractors or constructing houses. Those need long-term loans. Crop insurance began on a national scale with the National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) in 1999. Its successor, the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), caps the farmer's premium at 2 per cent for kharif crops, 1.5 per cent for rabi crops and 5 per cent for commercial and horticultural crops, and covers losses from prevented sowing to post-harvest damage.
Markets, land records and inputs
- Regulated mandis: rest on the APMC Acts passed by state legislatures. These Acts are the legal basis of the mandi system.
- eNAM: the National Agriculture Market, an electronic portal that links mandis across the country into a single online market.
- Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme: funded 100 per cent by the Union government. It digitises cadastral maps, computerises the records of rights and provides for transliterating those records into local languages.
- Soil Health Card: gives each farm a soil-test report with crop-wise recommendations of nutrients and fertilisers, so the farmer applies only what the soil actually needs.
- INSIMP: the Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millets Promotion, a scheme to promote millet production and consumption.
- Seed Village Concept: trains farmers in a village to produce quality seed for themselves and their neighbours. It attacks the low Seed Replacement Rate, which stays low because farmers reuse saved grain as seed and certified seed is costly and scarce.
- Mega Food Parks: cluster-based infrastructure that links farm production to food processors and markets.
- NFSM: the National Food Security Mission, run by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, raises the production of rice, wheat, pulses and coarse cereals.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2024UPSCWith reference to the Digital India—Land Records Modernization Program, consider the following statements:
- To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.
- Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised.
- An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCConsider the following statements:
- In the case of all cereals, pulses and oil-seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
- In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCIn India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture?
- Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops
- Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies
- Social Capital development
- Free electricity supply to farmers
- Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system
- Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2020UPSCUnder the Kisan Credit Card scheme, short-term credit support is given to farmers for which of the following purposes?
- Working capital for maintenance of farm assets
- Purchase of combine harvesters, tractors and mini trucks
- Consumption requirements of farm households
- Post-harvest expenses
- Construction of family house and setting up of village cold storage facility
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2019UPSCWith reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?
Previous-year question
2018UPSCConsider the following:
- Arecanut
- Barley
- Coffee
- Finger millet
- Groundnut
- Sesamum
- Turmeric
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has announced the Minimum Support Price for which of the above?
Previous-year question
2017UPSCConsider the following statements: The nation-wide 'Soil Health Card Scheme' aims at:
- Expanding the cultivable area under irrigation.
- Enabling the banks to assess the quantum of loans to be granted to farmers on the basis of soil quality.
- Checking the overuse of fertilizers in farmlands.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2017UPSCWhat is/are the advantage/advantages of implementing the 'National Agriculture Market' scheme?
- It is a pan-India electronic trading portal for agricultural commodities.
- It provides the farmers access to nationwide market, with prices commensurate with the quality of their produce.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWith reference to 'Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millets Promotion', which of the following statements is/are correct?
- This initiative aims to demonstrate the improved production and post-harvest technologies, and to demonstrate value addition techniques, in an integrated manner, with cluster approach.
- Poor, small, marginal and tribal farmers have larger stake in this scheme.
- An important objective of the scheme is to encourage farmers of commercial crops to shift to millet cultivation by offering them free kits of critical inputs of nutrients and micro-irrigation equipment.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2016UPSCWith reference to 'Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana', consider the following statements:
- Under this scheme, farmers will have to pay a uniform premium of two percent for any crop they cultivate in any season of the year.
- This scheme covers post-harvest losses arising out of cyclones and unseasonal rains.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2015UPSCIn India, markets in agricultural products are regulated under the:
Previous-year question
2015UPSCThe Fair and Remunerative Price of Sugarcane is approved by the:
Previous-year question
2015UPSCWhich one of the following best describes the main objective of 'Seed Village Concept'?
Previous-year question
2014UPSCIn the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the 'Seed Replacement Rates' of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation?
- There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
- There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.
- There is a demand-supply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
2011UPSCWith what purpose is the government of India promoting the concept of 'Mega food parks'?
- To provide good infrastructure facilities for the food processing industry.
- To increase the processing of perishable items and reduce wastage.
- To provide emerging and eco-friendly food processing technologies to entrepreneurs.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Previous-year question
2010UPSCConsider the following statements:
- The Union Government fixes the Statutory Minimum Price of sugarcane for each sugar season.
- Sugar and sugarcane are essential commodities under the Essential Commodities Act.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2009UPSCConsider the following statements:
- The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices recommends the Minimum Support Prices for 32 crops.
- The Union Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution has launched the National Food Security Mission.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2008UPSCNorman Ernest Borlaug who is regarded as the father of the Green Revolution in India is from which country?
Previous-year question
2004UPSCConsider the following statements:
- The loans disbursed to farmers under Kisan Credit Card Scheme are covered under Rashtriya Krishi Beema Yojna of Life Insurance Corporation of India.
- The Kisan Credit Card holders are provided personal accident insurance of Rs 50,000 for accidental death and Rs 25,000 for permanent disability.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2002UPSCConsider the following high yielding varieties of crops in India:
- Arjun
- Jaya
- Padma
- Sonalika
Which of these are wheat?
Previous-year question
2001UPSCNational Agriculture Insurance Scheme replacing Comprehensive Crop Insurance Scheme was introduced in the year:
Previous-year question
1999UPSCThe farmers are provided credit from a number of sources for their short and long-term needs. The main sources of credit to the farmers include:
Previous-year question
1995UPSCWhich of the following are the objectives of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP)? I. To stabilise agricultural prices. II. To ensure meaningful real income levels to the farmers. III. To protect the interest of the consumers by providing essential agricultural commodities at reasonable rates through public distribution system. IV. To ensure maximum price for the farmer. Select the correct answer from the codes given below:
Sustainable and climate-smart farming
Modern farming is being redesigned to use fewer inputs and emit fewer greenhouse gases. Several crop-specific methods lead this shift. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) grows rice with wider spacing and alternate wetting and drying of fields instead of continuous flooding. It reduces the seed requirement, reduces methane production (because the soil is not kept anaerobic) and reduces electricity used for pumping. The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) raises sugarcane from bud-chip seedlings. Seed cost is very low, drip irrigation works effectively with it, and the wide spacing leaves more scope for intercropping. It does not ban chemical fertilisers altogether.
Zero tillage, met earlier as a moisture saver, sows the next crop without ploughing. Wheat can be sown without burning the residue of the previous crop, paddy seeds can be planted directly in wet soil without a nursery, and the undisturbed soil sequesters carbon. Other practices counted as eco-friendly agriculture include organic farming, crop diversification, legume intensification (legumes fix nitrogen naturally) and the use of tensiometers, instruments that measure soil moisture so irrigation is given only when needed. Vertical farming is resource-intensive and is not counted among them. Biochar, a porous charcoal added to soil, serves as a growing medium in vertical farming, promotes nitrogen-fixing microorganisms and helps the medium retain water longer.
Two international frameworks recur in exams.
- Climate-Smart Village: an approach piloted in India under CCAFS (Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security), a research programme of the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research), which is headquartered in France. ICRISAT in Hyderabad is one of the CGIAR research centres.
- GACSA: the Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture, launched at the 2014 UN Climate Summit in New York, not at Paris 2015. Membership is voluntary and creates no binding obligations. India was not among its founders.
For organic produce, the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) sets the certification standards. It operates under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, with APEDA (the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) as its secretariat. Sikkim became India's first fully organic state in 2016.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2022UPSC"System of Rice Intensification" of cultivation, in which alternate wetting and drying of rice fields is practised, results in:
- Reduced seed requirement
- Reduced methane production
- Reduced electricity consumption
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2021UPSCIn the context of India's preparation for Climate-Smart Agriculture, consider the following statements:
- The 'Climate-Smart Village' approach in India is a part of a project led by the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), an international research programme.
- The project of CCAFS is carried out under Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) headquartered in France.
- The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India is one of the CGIAR's research centres.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCIn the context of India, which of the following is/are considered to be practice(s) of eco-friendly agriculture?
- Crop diversification
- Legume intensification
- Tensiometer use
- Vertical farming
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWhat is the use of biochar in farming?
- Biochar can be used as a part of the growing medium in vertical farming.
- When biochar is a part of the growing medium, it promotes the growth of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms.
- When biochar is a part of the growing medium, it enables the growing medium to retain water for longer time.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWhat is/are the advantage/advantages of zero tillage in agriculture?
- Sowing of wheat without burning the residue of previous crop.
- Without the need for nursery of rice saplings, direct planting of paddy seeds in the wet soil is possible.
- Carbon sequestration in the soil is possible
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2018UPSCWith reference to the 'Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture (GACSA)', which of the following statements is/are correct?
- GACSA is an outcome of the climate summit held in Paris in 2015.
- Membership of GACSA does not create any binding obligations.
- India was instrumental in the creation of GACSA.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2018UPSCWith references to organic farming in India, consider the following statements:
- 'The National Programme for Organic Production' (NPOP) is operated under the guidelines and directions of the Union Ministry of the Rural Development.
- 'The Agricultural and Processed and Products Export Development Authority' (APEDA) functions as the Secretariat for the implementation of NPOP.
- Sikkim has become India's first fully organic State.
Which of the following given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2014UPSCWhat are the significances of a practical approach to sugarcane production known as 'Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative'?
- Seed cost is very low in this compared to the conventional method of cultivation.
- Drip irrigation can be practiced very effectively in this.
- There is no application of chemical/inorganic fertilizers at all in this.
- The scope for intercropping is more in this compared to the conventional method of cultivation.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Previous-year question
1999UPSCWhich one of the following agricultural practices is eco-friendly?
Agriculture and the Constitution
Agriculture is primarily a state subject. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution places agriculture, including agricultural education and research, in the State List. The power to tax agricultural income follows the same logic. Entry 46 of the State List assigns agricultural income-tax exclusively to the state governments. This assignment is made by the Constitution itself, not by the Finance Commission or any council. That is why the central income-tax law exempts agricultural income.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
1995UPSCAgricultural income-tax is assigned to the State Governments by:
Rural development and credit
Two out of every three Indians live in villages. The country cannot prosper unless its villages do. Rural development therefore means the all-round improvement of rural life, not just higher farm output. It covers several connected things.
- Productivity: improving the productivity of both people and land.
- Land reforms, credit and marketing: changing land rules and connecting farmers to finance and fair markets.
- Infrastructure: roads, power, irrigation, schools and health facilities.
- Poverty reduction: raising health and literacy along with incomes.
Check yourself
Which statement best captures what rural development means?
Credit is the first need. Farmers must buy seeds, fertiliser and equipment, and bridge the long gap between sowing and selling. Historically, farmers were trapped by moneylenders charging crushing interest. To free them, India built a network of formal rural credit.
- Cooperative credit societies and commercial banks: the ground-level lenders to farmers.
- Regional Rural Banks: banks created to serve rural areas.
- NABARD: the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, set up in 1982 as the apex body coordinating rural finance.
Self-help groups have further extended cheap credit to the poor, especially women.
Check yourself
Which institution, set up in 1982, sits at the top of India's rural credit system?
Agricultural marketing
Growing crops is only half the battle. The farmer must also sell them at a fair price. Agricultural marketing is the process of gathering, storing, grading and selling farm produce. Farmers were often cheated by traders and forced to sell cheap. The government improved marketing through several measures.
- Regulated markets (mandis): market yards governed by rules to ensure fair dealing between farmers and traders.
- Minimum Support Price: the guaranteed floor price, so traders cannot force a sale below it.
- Buffer stocks and the Public Distribution System: state purchase and cheap distribution of grain, which also anchor food security.
- Cooperative marketing: farmers selling together for a better price, as Amul did for milk.
Check yourself
What is the purpose of the Minimum Support Price?
Diversification of rural livelihoods
Depending on crops alone is risky. Farming is seasonal and vulnerable to a bad monsoon. Diversification, spreading into other activities, makes rural incomes higher and more stable. The important avenues are these.
- Animal husbandry: dairying, expanded by the White Revolution.
- Fisheries: inland and marine fishing.
- Horticulture: fruits, vegetables and flowers.
- Non-farm employment: work in small industry and services.
Such diversification creates jobs, especially for women and the landless, and reduces dependence on the uncertain monsoon.
Check yourself
Why does diversification into dairy, fisheries and horticulture make rural incomes more stable?
Food security
Food security means that food is available to all people at all times, and that everyone can afford it. India works to ensure this in two main ways. First, it buys grain from farmers and keeps a buffer stock through the Food Corporation of India. Second, it distributes cheap food grain to the poor through the Public Distribution System (PDS) of ration shops. These measures protect the country against famine and shield the poor from sudden rises in food prices.
The four prices of grain
Grain policy uses a family of administered prices that must not be confused.
- Minimum Support Price: the floor price announced before sowing, at which the government stands ready to buy.
- Procurement price: the price at which the government actually buys grain after the harvest for the buffer stock and the PDS. Historically it was announced post-harvest and set above the MSP but below the open-market price. In practice the two have since merged.
- Issue price: the subsidised price at which the FCI releases grain to the ration shops.
- Ceiling price: the legal maximum at which a commodity may be sold, imposed during shortages.
Since 1997 the PDS has run as the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS). Distribution is targeted at poor households rather than universal and open-ended. The Centre allocates grain to every state at uniform Central Issue Prices, and each state manages distribution within its territory.
Previous-year questions
Previous-year question
2020UPSCWhich of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past?
- Minimum Support Price
- Government's trading
- Government's stockpiling
- Consumer subsidies
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Previous-year question
2019UPSCThe economic cost of food grains to the Food Corporation of India is Minimum Support Price and bonus (if any) paid to the farmers plus:
Previous-year question
2004UPSCConsider the following statements:
- Regarding the procurement of food grains, Government of India follows a procurement target rather than an open-ended procurement policy.
- Government of India announces minimum support prices only for cereals.
- For distribution under Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS), wheat and rice are issued by the Government of India at uniform Central issue prices to the States/Union Territories.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Previous-year question
2001UPSCThe prices at which the Government purchases food grains for maintaining the public distribution system and for building up buffer-stocks is known as:
Key takeaways
- Farming types: primitive subsistence (incl. shifting/jhum), intensive subsistence (small farms, heavy inputs) and commercial (incl. plantations)
- Three crop seasons: rabi (winter, wheat), kharif (monsoon, rice), zaid (summer, short crops)
- Food crops: rice (staple, needs water), wheat (north-west, cool season), millets (coarse grains), pulses (protein, fix nitrogen). Cash crops: sugarcane, cotton, jute, tea, coffee
- Reforms: land reforms (institutional), Green Revolution (HYV seeds → food self-sufficiency) and White Revolution (milk), support via MSP
- Food security ensured by buffer stocks (FCI) and the Public Distribution System
- India: world's largest livestock population; Gokul Mission conserves indigenous breeds
- India more arable land than China; China leads irrigation, yields
- Long irrigation causes salinization; organic matter raises water holding
- Fertigation: controls alkalinity, cuts leaching; rock phosphate unsuitable
- Drip irrigation cuts weeds and erosion, not salinity
- CADP 1974-75 water-use efficiency; AIBP 1996-97 stalled projects
- Neem-coated urea slows nitrogen release; excess N acidifies, leaches nitrate
- Biofertiliser Nostoc fixes nitrogen; Bt, fungi, neem as biopesticides
- SRI cuts seed, methane, electricity; zero tillage sequesters carbon
- NPOP under Commerce ministry, APEDA secretariat; Sikkim first organic state
- GACSA 2014 New York, voluntary; Climate-Smart Village under CCAFS/CGIAR
- Agricultural income-tax: states', via Entry 46 State List
- Primary activities take resources directly from nature
- Pastoralism: nomadic herding vs commercial livestock rearing
- Mining: open-cast for shallow deposits, shaft for deep
- World farming adds commercial grain and mixed farming
- Rural development: all-round, since most Indians are rural
- Rural credit: moneylenders replaced by banks, RRBs, NABARD (1982)
- Marketing: regulated mandis, MSP floor, cooperative selling (Amul)
- Diversification (dairy, fisheries, horticulture) stabilises rural incomes
- Sugarcane states: UP first, then Maharashtra
- India: largest turmeric and sugar producer, largest rice exporter
- India alone makes all five commercial silk varieties
- Cotton: frost-sensitive, 50–100 cm rain, light drained soil
- Rice tops kharif acreage; cotton area exceeds sugarcane
- KCC: short-term working capital, not tractors or houses
- MSP procurement limited; market price can exceed MSP
- FCI economic cost = MSP + incidentals + distribution
- Land-records digitisation: 100% central funding, cadastral maps
- Sugarcane FRP approved by CCEA
- Conservation agriculture: minimum tillage, residue cover, rotation
- Rajasthan: highest share of agricultural households
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