Europe

Europe is a peninsula of the great Eurasian landmass. It is the second-smallest continent, ranking sixth in area yet the most densely populated. Deeply indented by seas, it has a mild climate, navigable rivers and rich coalfields. These advantages made Europe the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, and it remains one of the world's most developed regions.

Europe has four major physical belts:

• The North-Western Highlands: old, hard rocks of the Fenno-Scandian Shield through Norway, Sweden and the British Isles, with deep fjords along the Norwegian coast.
• The North European Plain: a great lowland stretching from the Urals to the Atlantic. It is drained by the Rhine, Seine, Danube, Don and Volga, and has long been the continent's main farming and industrial belt.
• The Central Uplands: the Meseta of Spain, the Massif Central of France and the Black Forest of Germany.
• The Alpine System: young fold mountains including the Alps (Mont Blanc, 4807 m) and others. Europe's highest peak is Mount Elbrus (5633 m) in the Caucasus.

Europe is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea.

Much of Europe lies in the temperate zone. Its climate is famously mild, moderated by the sea and the warm westerlies. The main climate types:

• West European (maritime): cool summers, mild winters, rain all year.
• Mediterranean: long hot dry summers, warm wet winters.
• Continental: hot summers and very cold winters in the centre and east.
• Tundra: in the far north near the Arctic.

Vegetation varies widely. Mediterranean areas support olives, figs and grapes. Further inland, mixed oak and ash forests grow. The south-east has the temperate grassland of the steppes, while the north is covered by tundra and taiga.

Europe is rich in coal (Britain, the Ruhr, Ukraine), petroleum from the North Sea, and iron ore, bauxite and potash. This mineral base, combined with skilled labour, made it a great industrial continent.

Farming is intensive. Key crops are wheat (Ukraine, the Paris basin), barley, oats, sugar-beet and potatoes, alongside vineyards and orchards. The Netherlands has even reclaimed land from the sea, creating polders behind dykes. A dense web of navigable rivers and canals knits the continent together. The Rhine is the busiest inland waterway and is linked to the Danube. The North Sea is a major fishing ground.

Europe is the most densely populated continent, though unevenly so. The industrial regions of the UK, France, Germany and Italy are crowded, while the north is thinly peopled. Major countries include:

• the United Kingdom, separated from the mainland by the English Channel,
• France, the largest country in western Europe,
• Germany, with the Ruhr industrial heartland, and
• Russia, the world's largest country by area, spanning Europe and Asia.